Neurological Disorders: Alien Hand Syndrome

Synonyms:
 Anarchic hand; Diagnostic dyspraxia;  Intermanual conflict; Magnetic apraxia; Unilateral apraxia; La main etrangere. 

Overview
     Alien hand syndrome  is a rare neurological disorder that causes hand movement without the person being aware of what is happening or having control over the action. The afflicted person may sometimes reach for objects and manipulate them without wanting to do so, even to the point of having to use the healthy hand to restrain the alien hand. A new study identified the areas of the brain involved in both voluntary and involuntary movement and found that neural activity was restricted to the primary motor cortex during the unconscious motor activity seen with AHS. The study will be published online in the official journal of the American Neurological Association.

      The alien hand syndrome, as originally defined, was used to describe cases involving anterior corpus callosal lesions producing involuntary movement and a concomitant inability to distinguish the affected hand from an examiner's hand when these were placed in the patient's unaffected hand. In recent years, acceptable usage of the term has broadened considerably, and has been defined as involuntary movement occurring in the context of feelings of estrangement from or personification of the affected limb or its movements. Three varieties of alien hand syndrome have been reported, involving lesions of the corpus callosum alone, the corpus callosum plus dominant medial frontal cortex, and posterior cortical/subcortical areas. A patient with posterior alien hand syndrome of vascular aetiology is reported and the findings are discussed in the light of a conceptualisation of posterior alien hand syndrome as a disorder which may be less associated with specific focal neuropathology than are its callosal and callosal-frontal counterparts.


Clinical case:
     A 71-year-old right-handed woman developed acute left hemiparesis and visual hallucinations. She also complained that her left hand uncontrollably scratched her and pulled at her hair. Past medical history was notable for chronic hypertension and triple coronary artery bypass graft 6 years earlier. Two weeks before the illness, she had felt diffusely weak; another hospital had attributed this weakness to metoprolol toxicity. When her complaints did not subside after 2 days off medication, her husband brought her to the emergency room. Evaluation disclosed full orientation, left lower facial weakness, right gaze bias, left hemibody hypesthesia, and extensor posturing of the left limbs, with the left hand constantly clenched. Cranial CT scan indicated acute right parietal cortical infarct and extensive bilateral subcortical white matter ischemic changes.
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Sources:
http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/68/1/83.full
http://www.jsmf.org/meetings/2008/may/Mark%20VW%202008%20Alien%20hand%20syndrome.pdf
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20220444
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1136037-overview

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Restless Legs Syndrome

Background

       Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is a neurologic movement disorder of the limbs that is often associated with a sleep complaint ^.Patients with RLS have a characteristic difficulty in trying to depict their symptoms. They may report sensations, such as an almost irresistible urge to move the legs, that are not painful but are distinctly bothersome. RLS can lead to significant physical and emotional disability.

   The sensations of RLS usually are worse during inactivity and often interfere with sleep, leading to chronic sleep deprivation and stress.Once correctly diagnosed, RLS can usually be treated effectively and, in some secondary cases, it can even be cured.
The term RLS was used initially in the mid-1940s by Swedish neurologist Karl A. Ekbom. However, descriptions of the disorder date back to the 17th century.
RLS is often unrecognized or misdiagnosed. Many patients are not diagnosed until 10-20 years after symptom onset. RLS may begin at any age, even as early as infancy, but most patients who are affected severely are middle-aged or older.

What are common signs and symptoms of restless legs?

People with RLS feel uncomfortable sensations in their legs, especially when sitting or lying down, accompanied by an irresistible urge to move the affected limb.  These sensations less commonly affect the arms, trunk, or head.  Although the sensations can occur on just one side of the body, they most often affect both sides.
Because moving the legs (or other affected parts of the body) relieves the discomfort, people with RLS often keep their legs in motion to minimize or prevent the sensations. They may pace the floor, constantly move their legs while sitting, and toss and turn in bed.

A classic feature of RLS is that the symptoms are worse at night with a distinct symptom-free period in the early morning, allowing for more refreshing sleep at that time.  Other triggering situations are periods of inactivity such as long car trips, sitting in a movie theater, long-distance flights, immobilization in a cast, or relaxation exercises.  Many individuals also note a worsening of symptoms if their sleep is further reduced by events or activity.
RLS symptoms may vary from day to day and in severity and frequency from person to person.  Individuals with mild RLS may have some disruption of sleep onset and minor interference in daytime activities.  In moderately severe cases, symptoms occur only once or twice a week but result in significant delay of sleep onset, with some disruption of daytime function.  In severe cases of RLS, the symptoms occur more than twice a week and result in burdensome interruption of sleep and impairment of daytime function.
Individuals with RLS can sometimes experience remissions—spontaneous improvement over a period of weeks or months before symptoms reappear—usually during the early stages of the disorder.  In general, however, symptoms become more severe over time.
People who have both RLS and an associated medical condition tend to develop more severe symptoms rapidly.  In contrast, those who have RLS that is not related to any other condition and experience onset at an early age show a very slow progression of the disorder; many years may pass before symptoms occur regularly.

What causes restless legs syndrome?

In most cases, the cause of RLS is unknown. However, it may have a genetic component; RLS is often found in families where the onset of symptoms is before age 40. Specific gene variants have been associated with RLS. Evidence indicates that low levels of iron in the brain also may be responsible for RLS.
Considerable evidence suggests that RLS is related to a dysfunction in the brain’s basal ganglia circuits that use the neurotransmitter dopamine, which is needed to produce smooth, purposeful muscle activity and movement. Disruption of these pathways frequently results in involuntary movements. Individuals with Parkinson’s disease, another disorder of the basal ganglia’s dopamine pathways, often have RLS as well.
RLS also appears to be related to the following factors or conditions, although researchers do not yet know if these factors actually cause RLS:

• Chronic diseases such as kidney failure, diabetes, and peripheral neuropathy. Treating the underlying condition often provides relief from RLS symptoms.
• Certain medications that may aggravate symptoms. These medications include antinausea drugs (prochlorperazine or metoclopramide), antipsychotic drugs (haloperidol or phenothiazine derivatives), antidepressants that increase serotonin, and some cold and allergy medications-that contain sedating antihistamines.
• Pregnancy, especially in the last trimester. In most cases, symptoms usually disappear within 4 weeks after delivery.

Alcohol and sleep deprivation also may aggravate or trigger symptoms in some individuals. Reducing or completely eliminating these factors may relieve symptoms, but it is unclear if this can prevent RLS symptoms from occurring at all.

How is restless legs syndrome diagnosed?

There is no specific test for RLS.  The four basic criteria for diagnosing the disorder are:

• Symptoms that are worse at night and are absent or negligible in the morning;
• A strong and often overwhelming need or urge to move the affected limb(s), often associated with paresthesias or dysesthesias;
• Sensory symptoms that are triggered by rest, relaxation, or sleep; and
• Sensory symptoms that are relieved with movement and the relief persists as long as the movement continues.
  

    Physicians should focus largely on the individual’s descriptions of symptoms, their triggers and relieving factors, as well as the presence or absence of symptoms throughout the day.   A neurological and physical exam, plus information from the individual’s medical and family history and list of current medications, may be helpful.  Individuals may be asked about frequency, duration, and intensity of symptoms as well as their tendency toward daytime sleep patterns and sleepiness, disturbance of sleep, or daytime function.
Laboratory tests may be performed to rule out other conditions.  Blood tests can identify iron and vitamin deficiencies as well as other medical disorders associated with RLS.  In some cases, sleep studies such as polysomnography (a test that records the individual’s brain waves, heartbeat, breathing, and leg movements during an entire night) may identify the presence of other causes of sleep disruption (e.g., sleep apnea), which may impact management of the disorder.
Diagnosing RLS in children may be especially difficult, since it may be hard for a child to describe where it hurts, when and how often the symptoms occur, and how long symptoms last.  Pediatric RLS can sometimes be misdiagnosed as "growing pains" or attention deficit disorder.

How is restless legs syndrome treated?

       RLS can be treated, with care directed toward relieving symptoms. Moving the affected limb(s) may provide temporary relief. Sometimes RLS symptoms can be controlled by finding and treating an associated medical condition, such as peripheral neuropathy or diabetes.
Certain lifestyle changes and activities that may reduce symptoms in persons with mild to moderate symptoms include decreased use of caffeine, alcohol, and tobacco; supplements to correct deficiencies in iron, folate, and magnesium; changing or maintaining a regular sleep pattern; a program of moderate exercise; and massaging the legs, taking a hot bath, or using a heating pad or ice pack. A trial of iron supplements is recommended only for individuals with low iron levels. Although many people find some relief with such measures, rarely do these efforts completely eliminate symptoms.
Medications are usually helpful but no single medication effectively manages RLS for all individuals. Trials of different drugs may be necessary. In addition, medications taken regularly may lose their effect over time, making it necessary to change medications periodically.
Common drugs prescribed to treat RLS include:
Dopaminergic agents (drugs that increase dopamine), largely used to treat Parkinson's disease, have been shown to reduce symptoms of RLS and PLMS when they are taken at bedtime and are considered the initial treatment of choice. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved pramipexole and ropinirole to treat moderate to severe RLS. Both drugs are generally well tolerated but can cause nausea, dizziness, or other side effects. Good short-term results of treatment with levodopa plus carbidopa have been reported.
Although dopamine-related medications are effective in managing RLS, long-term use can lead to worsening of the symptoms in many individuals. This apparent progressive worsening is referred to as “augmentation.” With chronic use, a person may begin to experience symptoms earlier in the evening than in the afternoon until finally the symptoms are present around the clock. The initial evening or bedtime dose becomes less effective, the symptoms at night become more intense, and symptoms begin to affect the arms or trunk. Fortunately, this apparent progression is reversible by removing the person from all dopamine-related medications. Another important adverse effect of dopamine medications that occurs in some people is the development of impulsive or obsessive behaviors such as obsessive gambling or shopping. Should they occur, these behaviors can be reversed by stopping the medication.
Other medications may be prescribed “off-label” (not specifically designed to treat RLS) to relieve some of the symptoms of the disorder.

• Benzodiazepines can help individuals who have mild or intermittent symptoms obtain a more restful sleep. However, even if taken only at bedtime they can sometimes cause daytime sleepiness. Benzodiazepines such as clonazepam and diazepam are generally prescribed to treat anxiety, muscle spasms, and insomnia. Because these drugs also may induce or aggravate sleep apnea in some cases, they should not be used in people with this condition.

• Opioids such as codeine, propoxyphene, or oxycodone may be prescribed at night to diminish pain and help to relax individuals with more severe symptoms. Side effects include dizziness, nausea, exacerbation of sleep apnea, and the risk of addiction.

• Anticonvulsants such as gabapentin and pregabalin can decrease the sensory disturbances such as creeping and crawling sensations and nerve pain. Dizziness, fatigue, and sleepiness are among the possible side effects.

What is the prognosis of people with restless legs?

RLS is generally a lifelong condition for which there is no cure. Nevertheless, current therapies can control the disorder, minimizing symptoms and increasing periods of restful sleep. Symptoms may gradually worsen with age, although the decline may be somewhat faster for individuals who also suffer from an associated medical condition. In addition, some individuals have remissions—periods in which symptoms decrease or disappear for days, weeks, or months—although symptoms usually eventually reappear. A diagnosis of RLS does not indicate the onset of another neurological disease, such as Parkinson’s disease.

Sources:
The Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation
What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Restless Legs Syndrome?
Night Walker: Restless Legs Syndrome- Do creepy-crawly feelings in your legs have you walking the night away? You may have restless legs syndrome. http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/rls-08/rls-sleep-problems
Restless Legs Syndrome http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1188327-overview
Video: Discovery Health CME:  Restless Legs Syndrome http://health.discovery.com/videos/discovery-health-cme-restless-legs-syndrome.html

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Depression During Pregnancy Might Affect Baby

Babies born to mothers who are depressed during pregnancy have higher levels of stress hormones, decreased muscle tone and other neurological and behavioral differences, a new study finds. "The two possibilities are that  are either more sensitive to stress and respond more vigorously to it, or that they are less able to shut down their stress response," lead investigator Dr. Delia M. Vazquez, a professor of psychiatry and pediatrics at the University of Michigan School of Medicine, said in a school news release.

She and her colleagues examined the association between depression in pregnant women and the development of infants' neuroendocrine system, which controls the body's stress response, as well as mood and emotions. The study included 154 pregnant women, over the age of 20, whose depressive symptoms were assessed at 28, 32 and 37 weeks of pregnancy and again when they gave birth. Umbilical cord blood samples were taken at birth to measure stress hormone levels. At two weeks, the infants underwent neurobehavioral tests to assess their motor skills and responses to stimuli and stress.

The findings appear online and in an upcoming print issue of the journal Infant Behavior and Development. "It's difficult to say to what extent these differences are good or bad, or what impact they might have over a longer period of time," lead author Dr. Sheila Marcus, clinical director of U-M's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Section, said in the news release. "We're just beginning to look at these differences as part of a whole collection of data points that could be risk markers," she added. "These in turn would identify women who need attention during pregnancy or mother/infant pairs who might benefit from postpartum programs known to support healthy infant development through mom/baby relationships."

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